A Systematic and Rule-Governed Grammar
One of the most damaging misconceptions about Appalachian English is that its grammar is simply a collection of errors or sloppy speech. Linguistic research, including our own at KIAL, definitively shows this is false. Appalachian English has its own internal logic and systematic grammatical rules, many of which are direct descendants of earlier stages of English or parallel constructions in other languages. Understanding these structures is key to respecting the dialect as a legitimate variety. Our work involves describing these rules in detail, tracing their historical origins, and explaining how they function within the communicative system of the speech community.
The Verbal System: Tense, Aspect, and Modality
The verb system in Appalachian English exhibits several distinctive and regular features. A prominent one is the use of 'a-' prefix with '-ing' verbs (e.g., 'He was a-goin' to town'), a feature that can be traced back to Old English and is found in Shakespeare. Perhaps the most famous feature is the use of double (or even triple) modals: constructions like 'might could,' 'used to could,' 'may can,' or 'might should.' These are not random combinations but follow a strict order of meaning, expressing nuanced degrees of possibility, permission, and ability. Another key feature is the use of 'done' as a marker of completed action or emphasis: 'I done told you' or 'She done finished her work.' This functions similarly to a perfective aspect marker. The past tense forms of certain verbs also show historical patterns, such as 'clumb' for climbed, 'drug' for dragged, and 'holp' for helped.
Pronoun Forms and Case Usage
Pronoun usage in Appalachian English often preserves older English forms and case assignments. The use of 'hit' for 'it' is a clear archaism. The possessive is frequently formed with a pronoun plus 'n' (e.g., 'hisn,' 'hern,' 'yourn,' 'ourn,' 'theirn'), analogous to 'mine' and 'thine.' In the objective case, 'them' can function as a demonstrative adjective ('them apples'), and 'what' can serve as a relative pronoun ('the man what sold it'). There is also a distinctive use of reflexive pronouns for emphasis, as in 'He bought hisself a truck.' Furthermore, the second-person plural pronoun 'y'all' (or regional variants like 'you'uns' in some areas) fills a crucial gap in Modern English, which lacks a distinct plural 'you.' These pronoun patterns are not haphazard but follow consistent, learnable rules that children acquire naturally when growing up in the speech community.
Prepositional and Syntactic Patterns
Preposition use often differs from standard norms in predictable ways. Common examples include 'wait on' (wait for), 'bored of' (bored with), and the omission of a preposition in phrases like 'He come home' (without 'to'). Syntactically, Appalachian English allows for certain constructions that Standard English does not. One is the use of 'for to' in infinitival purpose clauses: 'I went to the store for to buy some bread.' Another is the positive use of 'anymore' meaning 'nowadays,' as in 'Anymore, you hardly see that.' There is also the optional deletion of the copula 'be' in certain contexts ('She smart') and the use of 'was' with plural subjects in past tense narratives ('We was there'). These are not errors but features of a different grammatical system, many of which increase efficiency or add specific shades of meaning.
Negation and Comparative Structures
Negation in Appalachian English can involve multiple negation for emphasis ('I don't know nothing about it'), a pattern common in many of the world's languages and present in earlier English (Chaucer used it). This is often mislabeled as illogical 'double negative,' though it is perfectly logical within its system. Comparative and superlative forms also show distinctive patterns. The use of 'more' and 'most' with adjectives that already have comparative/superlative suffixes is common: 'more prettier,' 'most kindest.' Additionally, the intensifier 'right' is used where others might use 'very' ('right cold') or to mean 'directly' ('right over yonder'). By meticulously cataloging and analyzing these grammatical structures, we provide a formal description of Appalachian English that elevates it from stereotype to a documented, rule-based dialect worthy of serious academic study and cultural respect, providing a foundation for educators and community members to understand its true nature.